Consider the significance of the Edict of Nantes 1598 Essay Example for Free

Consider the significance of the Edict of Nantes 1598 Essay The Edict of Nantes immediately followed the Wars of Religion, which further divided France in terms of religion. The Edict of Nantes could be described as a significant development in policies regarding religion in France in the 17th century. The policies were implemented by a monarch who sat on the fence when it came to religion, having devotions to both Catholicism and Protestantism, in the shape of Henry IV. The Edict of Nantes itself was very significant as its policy was the first of its kind in French politics. Never before had a French monarch tolerated both Catholicism and Protestantism and allowed them both to flourish in the same country. Whatever Henrys beliefs and motives in implementing such a policy, it was certainly an original policy and a significant development in sixteenth and seventeenth century France. Toleration existed and although it can be argued that Protestants didnt have very much power and the Catholics remained in near total control of the majority of areas in the country but the Protestants certainly had more power than they had under previous more anti-Protestant monarchs. The Edict could also be described as a turning point. Indeed, it could be described as a very significant turning point. Legislation was put in place in an attempt to avoid discrimination against the Protestants. Discrimination was not evident by the Edict itself; it was more of a case of trying to give the Protestants more rights. Henry couldnt go as far as giving the Protestants equal legal, religious and political rights because he would lose the support of the Catholics. However, there can be no denying the significance of the legislation. It was the attempt to be pragmatic where religion is concerned which resulted in his death. The significance of Henrys reign lies in the difference and the pragmatism of his reign. The actual legislation could be described as ground breaking. The rights that the Edict of Nantes gave the Protestants included full liberty of conscience and private worship; liberty of public worship wherever it had previously been granted and its extension to numerous other localities and to estates of Protestant nobles; full civil rights including the right to hold public office; royal subsidies for Protestant schools; special courts, composed of Roman Catholic and Protestant judges, to judge cases involving Protestants; retention of the organization of the Protestant church in France; and Protestant control of some 200 cities then held by the Huguenots, including such strongholds as La Rochelle, with the king contributing to the maintenance of their garrisons and fortifications. In practice, things were slightly different for the Protestants who were oppressed by the Catholics and still werent allowed anywhere near Paris. It is clear that full, equal rights for the Protestants were not given by Henry for example, Roman Catholic judges had more power in the courts than the Protestant judges did and often Roman Catholic bias came through in a number of cases but there was some attempt to give the Protestants some rights and freedoms which was in itself significant. The Edict of Nantes was also very significant in terms of Henrys foreign policy. He wanted to protect the southern border of France from the Spanish and Austrian Hapsburgs. Henry was more patriotic than the French kings before him and his policies show this as he placed the Protestants in the south of France, using the Protestants to protect France from Spain. All of this means that in terms of French foreign policy the Edict of Nantes carries further significance for a number of reasons The removal of the Protestants away from Paris and further towards the south means that Henry IV embarked on a policy of centralisation. There is no doubt that Henry converted to Catholicism and tried to maintain as much power as possible for his Catholic friends in the establishment. Policies were made more in a centralised way i.e. from Paris and the Protestants were freezed out in positions of power by the Catholics. This is significant because of the reign of Louis XIII who furthered the centralisation policy, and shows that there was a trend towards centralisation before Louis XIII came onto the throne. This also shows that Henrys domestic and foreign policy can easily be linked, which is also significant. All of this emphasises how significant the Edict of Nantes was. Henrys patriotism was also on show in the implementation of the Edict of Nantes. He didnt want any foreign influence in his affairs and he wanted to appease the Protestants. The best way to appease them was giving them an important role whilst getting what he wanted in his foreign policy by getting the Protestants to protect the borders of France. This is highly significant as never before had a French monarch been as patriotic as Henry and it is also significant because it indicates that Henry didnt actually want the Catholics to have power in all areas of France which probably indicates that he still had allegiances to the Protestant beliefs despite his conversion to Catholicism. Henrys tactical manoeuvres were also significant in another way. Basically, he prevented the Wars of Religion from continuing and restarting again. The irony is that his tendency to sit on the fence on the issue of religion in the end cost him his life. This is why some historians place emphasis on the significance of this aspect of the Edict of Nantes. Henrys early life as a Protestant and his subsequent conversion to Catholicism make the Edict of Nantes interesting as well as significant. To consider the significance of the Edict of Nantes, we have to consider the situation in France before Henry IV came to the throne and even beyond the Wars of Religion. The Wars of Religion were where the Calvinist Huguenots (Protestants) and the Catholics did battle for control of the monarchy. The Catholics won and maintained control of the monarchy; however, it is clear that something needed to be done to prevent another War of Religion from happening. Henry IV was the man with the job of preventing another War of Religion and he turned out to be the perfect man for the job. Unlike most French monarchs in this period, Henry was pragmatic when it came to religion although he had developed a slight preference for Catholicism. Henry felt that they were more important things than religion his patriotism as opposed to his religious beliefs but ultimately it was this that caused his downfall and eventual death. However, the very fact that the Wars of Religion didnt happen again throughout Henry IVs reign is very significant considering the huge division between the two religions. Another War of Religion could have shaped French history differently, especially if the Protestants/Calvinists came out on top. Todays France could also have been completely different if a war wasnt avoided. This makes Henrys reign and of course the Edict of Nantes take on further significance. The Edict of Nantes certainly cannot be described as revolutionary but it was almost a complete reform of the laws regarding religion. In reality, there was little reform because there was major exploitation of flaws in the law by the Catholics. However, this shouldnt take anything away from the significance of the Edict of Nantes because the laws created Protestant strangleholds in the south of France. Despite all this, the Edict of Nantes takes on an apparent lack of significance because of what happened to Henry and what happened under the reigns of subsequent monarchs. The Edict was indeed revoked in 1685 and steadily the Catholics moved towards a position of total power over the Protestants. So this means that the Edict of Nantes loses some of its significance because the policies of Henry had no impact on future monarchs. During Henrys reign, however, significance can be attached to the Edict.

Free Essays - Impact of the Title of The Awakening :: Chopin Awakening Essays

Impact of the Title of The Awakening By using an evocative title like In The Awakening, Kate Chopin creates a spark of interest that makes the reader ponder over the events in the novel, wondering if there's more to the story than the text. Chopin's title is as figurative as her novel; The awakening is not in a literal since, as one would expect, but rather in terms of Edna's "awakening" from her life of ignorant servitude to society, which shows that the purpose of her work is to get her readers to think for themselves. Edna Pontellier's process of awakening is the focus of this novel. Edna's "awakening" begins when Edna starts "to realize her position in the universe as a human being." (page 57) At this point, Edna starts to think for herself. This happens relatively early in the novel, and spans the course of the book. Edna's Awakening seems to come in short bursts, one level at a time. She gains her next "level" when Edna "denied and resisted" (page 78) her husband, which was unheard of in that time. Edna's awakening is well illustrated when she wakes (literally) and asks "How many years have I slept?" (page 85) Edna relates her life to that point to her own slumber, unthinking and passive until she "awakens." At this point, the world is exposed for what it is in truth, not what society masks it to be. Edna fully "awakens" in her own death, finally acknowledging her love for Robert and her own loneliness. When Edna takes her own life, it shows that she no longer has anything to live for, save a love that will never amount to anything. Just before Edna goes into the water, a "bird with a broken wing," (page 175) symbolizing Edna, drowns, as does she.

The Development of the Western Frontier between 1866 and 1890

The Trans-Mississipi west comprises the region that spans from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains (Client file, n. pag. ). It is estimated to be 1,000 miles long from east to west and is about 1,500 miles from north to south (Client file, n. pag. ). The Trans-Mississippi west (also known as the Great Plains, the Western Frontier or the prairie) was inhabited by more than 300,000 Native Americans, collectively referred to as the Plains Indians (Client file, n. pag. ). Prior to the Civil War, the Western Frontier was largely unpopulated by pioneers (although it was under the control of the United States government through the Louisiana Purchase in 1803) (Client file, n. pag. ). Some wagon trains did pass through the area en route to Oregon or California, but these were able to do so unmolested (in sharp contrast to Hollywood films) (Client file, n. pag. ). In return, the payment of tributes in the form of clothing, jewelry, metal utensils or other items desired by the tribes was required (Client file, n. ag. ). However, the Homestead Act of 1862 (passed during the Civil War) encouraged emigration to the Western Frontier (Client file, n. pag. ). Under the act, settlers can avail of a 160-acre parcel of land for a small filing fee worth $10 (Client file, n. pag. ). In addition, they can obtain the full title to the land within five years if they were able to make significant improvements on it (planting crops, building houses, raising livestock, etc. ) (Client file, n. pag. ). As a result, homesteaders, miners and ranchers trespassed on Indian lands and threatened the Plains Indians' hunting and way of life (Client file, n. pag. ). This left the Plains Indians with no other choice but to use armed resistance (Client file, n. pag. ). The hostilities between the Plains Indians and the US Cavalry (called on by the settlers to crush Indian opposition and to confine tribes in government-controlled reservations) that ensued were eventually called the Western Indian Wars (1866-1890) (Client file, n. ag. ). Despite the attractive terms of the Homestead Act of 1862, around 60% of emigrants gave up on their homesteads before the end of the five-year period (Client file, n. pag. ). Reasons for doing so included lack of water supply, Indian attacks, harsh winters, soil that was unfit for planting and sometimes-deadly conflicts with ranchers, who saw homesteads as a hindrance to cattle grazing (Client file, n. pag. ). On the other hand, those who remained endured extre me hardships just to survive. They worked very hard under sub-zero winters and summers that often reached more than a hundred degrees Fahrenheit (Client file, n. pag. ). Unable to afford houses made of wood, they lived in houses built of sod and dirt (Client file, n. pag. ). They also experienced infestations of locusts, which would eat their crops, as well as the drapes of their houses and their clothing (Client file, n. pag. ). Adding to their list of burdends were natural disasters such as storms and tornadoes (Client file, n. pag. ). The homesteaders' privations were so great that History professor Frederick Jackson Turner hypothesized in his thesis in 1890 that â€Å"much of America's free and democratic spirit was forged by the existence of an open frontier to the west† (Client file, n. pag. ). Another important advancement in the Western Frontier was the Transcontinental Railroad. The absence of a railway system in the region isolated Oregon and California (already states) from the rest of the US – they stood alone at the edge of the country and were accessible only by wagon train, ship or boat (Client file, n. ag. ). President Abraham Lincoln and the US Congress backed a railroad act which authorized the presence of a railroad across the continent, but it was not implemented until the end of the Civil War (Client file, n. pag. ). The construction of the railroad started in 1864 – the Union Pacific was built westward from Omaha, Nebraska, while the Central Pacific was erected eastward from Sacramento, California (Client file, n. pag. ). Even if only 40 miles of track were laid by 1865, the pace of the assembly increased at the end of war (Client file, n. ag. ). Majority of the workers that were recruited for the building of the railroad were from minority groups such as blacks, Mexicans, Asians and Irish (Client file, n. pag. ). Despite delays in construction (storms, harsh winters, occasional Indian attacks, migration of large buffalo herds, etc. ), the Transcontinental Railroad was finally completed at Promontory Point, Utah on May 10, 1869 (Client file, n. pag. ). The Transcontinental Railroad boosted commerce in the Western Frontier, particularly the cattle industry (Client file, n. pag. ). Even though the cattle industry was already a major part of the western economy, the lack of transportation hindered its expansion into the eastern part of the US (Client file, n. pag. ). Hence, the development of railroads in the Western Frontier (along with entrepreneurs such as Joseph McCoy, who promoted beef as tasty and healthy) increased the demand for beef in the east (Client file, n. pag. ). Cowboys would drive large herds of cows from Texas and New Mexico to â€Å"railheads† – towns on or near the rail line, such as Dodge City, Abilene, Wichita and Colorado Springs (Client file, n. ag. ). Once in the â€Å"railheads,† the cattle would be kept in large pens or yards, where they would be fattened for market in the east (Client file, n. pag. ). During this time, a cowboy was paid usually around $25-$30 per month (Client file, n. pag. ). â€Å"Railheads† (also known as â€Å"railhead towns† or â€Å"cow towns†) became prosperous not only because of the cattle industry, but also because of saloons or â€Å"dance halls,† where cowboys spent their money on liqour, gambling and women (Client file, n. pag. ). It is likewise the saloon that gave â€Å"railheads† their reputation for lawlessness (Client file, n. pag. ). But it must be noted that this image was largely seen only in Hollywood films (Client file, n. pag. ). For one, most â€Å"railheads† were strict when it comes to gun control (Client file, n. pag. ). Gun control laws in â€Å"railheads† were enforced by tough sheriffs or marshalls with shotgun-toting deputies – one gun control law that they strictly implemented was that cowboys should surrender their guns to them while they were in town (Client file, n. pag. ). In addition, the saloon area in a â€Å"railhead† was usually located in the opposite direction of the â€Å"respectable† side of the town to minimize the possibility of untoward incidents (Client file, n. pag. ). Lastly, contrary to Hollywood films, cowboys were not hardened criminals but â€Å"just regular and adventurous young men letting off steam after several months of hard work† (Client file, n. pag. ). Most gunfights â€Å"were spontaenous events in a saloon or in the street between angry or drunken men who had not been relieved of their guns† (Client file, n. pag. ). They usually fought over â€Å"poker-related disputes, a woman, a perceived insult or some ongoing enmity between long-time adversaries† (Client file, n. pag. ). In most â€Å"railheads,† the murder rate was â€Å"acutally lower than the murder rate of many large American cities in the latter half of the twentieth century† (Client file, n. pag. ). Furthermore, extensive research has proven that in the period between 1870-1900, only five gun duels occurred in the entire Western Frontier (Client file, n. pag. ). It is true that emigration led to the development of the Trans-Mississipi west. However, it must be kept in mind that this progress did not come without a price – the Western Indian Wars killed around 1,000 US Cavalry soldiers and led to the death and enslavement of millions of Plains Indians (McConnell, n. pag. ). It would be fair to say that the circumstances surrounding the expansion of the Trans-Mississipi west became one of the precursors for future instances of US political, economic and military aggression abroad. The strategy remains the same – plunder the country (or in this case, region) as much as you can, fill the people's minds with deceiving propaganda and chop off a few thousand heads when necessary.

Contrasting Actions Of Couples And The Different Kinds Of...

In the novel Austen uses techniques of contrasting actions of couples leading up to ones family marriages and the different kinds of marriage and their outcomes. The family is called the Bennett’s, they have five unmarried daughters and no sons, and this proposes a problem to them because there estate is entailed to inheritance, to Mr. Collins, a family cousin. This will leave the Bennet daughters, once Mr. Bennet dies, without a home or money. Mrs. Bennet is very determined to find all her children a husband, and has a bad outlook on what a marriage should entail. We can see this in the quote in the very beginning of the novel when Mrs. Bennet states, â€Å"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good†¦show more content†¦Lydia Bennet is the youngest of the five sisters and part of the novel revolves around her shameful elopement with Mr. Wickham and the disgrace and drama it brings to her family. We see Lydia through the eyes o f her sister Elizabeth where she states â€Å"Our importance, our respectability in the world, must be affected by the wild volatility, the assurance and disdain of all restraint which mark Lydia s character.(118) Lydia is described as being incapable of listening to her oldest sisters advice because they she is too stubborn pursue her own interests. She is described as being â€Å"Vain, ignorant, idle, and absolutely uncontrolled! (p. 118). Elizabeth even warns her father if he does not start controlling Lydia soon, â€Å"she will, at sixteen, be the most determined flirt that ever made herself or her family ridiculous† (p. 118). Her family is worried that she is going to ruin her own and her family’s reputation through her inappropriate actions, through her flirtations with every officer she comes across. Austen represents Mrs. Bennet as the direct cause of Lydia’s misfortunes. Mrs. Bennet is described by Austen as, â€Å"a woman of mean understanding, little information, and uncertain temper (p. 60) Mrs. Bennet fails to educate Lydia socially, and by spoiling her and encouraging her flirtatious, she contributes to the Elopement. Lydia should not be the one to bla me for her actions, Mrs. Bennet should be. Mrs. Bennet values marriage as something that concerns wealth and